Presentation of the department

The Submerged Antiquities Section displays some of the artifacts discovered in the Eastern Harbor of Alexandria and at the Bay of Abukir, where once existed the cities of Thonis-Heracleion, Canopus and Menouthis. The collection encompasses beside coins, jewels and amphorae, a unique collection of statues and statue fragments which reveal the foreign influences on Egyptian art. One of the remarkable examples is a black basalt statue theoretically attributed to a Ptolemaic Queen, probably Arsinoe II.
These artifacts were brought to light, thanks to the Franck Goddio team, who works in conjunction with the Supreme Council of Antiquities. Goddio, Director of the European Institute of Underwater  Archeology (IEASM), has began the marine excavations in Alexandria since 1992.

The Submerged City Rediscovered

The dream of finding sunken antiquities under the water returns back to the beginnings of the 20th. Century, since 1910, the French naval engineer "Jondet" was imposed to make enlargements for the western harbor in Alexandria, where there were found sunken establishments which appeared to look like ancient harbor sidewalks to the west of the Pharos island. In the year 1933, chance played an important role in the discovery of the first site of sunken antiquities in Egypt, at the site of Abo-kir to the east of Alexandria; this was discovered by a pilot in the British Air forces, who reported to the prince "Omar Tusson" who was known for his passion for antiquities, and who was a member of The Royal Antiquities Association in Alexandria then, who carried out financing the process of searching which emanated the find of a head of marble belonging to Alexander The Great, which is on display now in the Graeco-Roman Museum in Alexandria.

During the sixties a professional diver who had passion for antiquities called Kamel Abo-Al Sa'adat prepared two maps for the sunken antiquities, the first was for the eastern harbor, while the second was for the bay of Abo-kir. He also cooperate along with the Egyptian navy to take some of his finds out to light at the position of the lighthouse in April and November of the year 1962 successively. While the utmost of those trials is what was made in the mid. 80s when the French Navy in cooperation with the Egyptian Antiquities Corporation, studied together the site where Napoleon's fleet had sunken and took some of its remains out to light, also the position of "The Patriot" ship was located.

By the beginning of the 90s interested expeditions came to Egypt, and they started the search, excavation and the quest for the sunken antiquities in Egypt, where the position of The Qaitbay Fortress which covers the area of 22.500 m2 is considered to be the most important among all other sites, that’s because it alone contains more than 3000 architectural piece.

The European Institute of Sunken Antiquities then swabbed entirely the site of the eastern harbor in the year 1992; this produced the exact Topographical map of the sunken antiquities in that harbor, which proved that there existed many ancient harbors within the recent eastern harbor.

The quest for the Egyptian sunken antiquities ended in the year 2005 by the French explorer "Franck Goddio", also a big collection of these antiquities was found in the year 2000 at the empty city of "Hieraklieon", which was partially discovered by Omar Tusson in the year 1934.

The European institute then re-discovered the site, but concerning the sunken fleet of Napoleon at the bay of Abo-kir, Abo-Al Sa'adat managed to locate seven locations for the sunken fleet besides the island of Nelson in the year 1966; later the French expedition "Napoleon" joined him by the command of Jacques Dumas in the year 1983, this expedition managed to bring out sunken parts of the fleet by the help of The French and The Egyptian Navy.

Egypt’s Underwater Antiquities Tour the World

The Minister of Culture agreed to launch a world tour in several European cities to showcase artifacts bearing the thoughts and feelings of ancient man, and to reveal to the world a legendary historical part of ancient Egyptian civilization.
The exhibition included 489 rare pieces from the Bibliotheca Alexandrina Antiquities Museum, Alexandria National Museum, Greco-Roman Museum, underwater antiquities warehouses and the Restoration Lab in Alexandria.
 

Presentation of the department

The Bibliotheca Alexandrina Excavations collection is among the most important collections in the Antiquities Museum as it reflects the remarkable artistic style and reveals the nature of the daily life during the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods. It is also regarded as the core of the Museum collections, as it was discovered during the construction of the New Bibliotheca Alexandrina.
The BA Antiquities section comprises 111 artifacts, the most important of which are the marvelous mosaics which are believed to have paved the floors of the royal palaces that once stood in this region.

The New Library of Alexandria

In the center of the ancient royal district of Alexandria and somewhere in front of the site of the head of "Lochias", where is called now Al-Silsilah, a piece of land belonging to the Alexandria University having the area of 85.000m², has been chosen to revive the ancient Library which was the beacon of knowledge and culture, a research institute and the substructure of the ancient university.

The site surveillance started in the year 1993 and unfolded some demolished architectural elements which were not in their original site within the debris, where the excavational pits bore hundreds of antiquities which most of them date back to the Hellenistic era.

These founds acted as the nuclei of the current Antiquities Museum which contains a number of parts fetched from most likely all museums all over Egypt, to make the display within the museum complete, giving an idea about all civilizations which passed alternatively on Egypt, starting by the Pharaonic era and passing through the Graeco-Roman, Hellenistic, then the Byzantine and finally the Islamic. The museum also includes a collection of sunken antiquities which were found in the Eastern Harbor and in the district of Abo-kir.

The Antiquities Museum inside the Bibliotheca Alexandrina is solely unique that it is built within the sancta of a library, which embodies the luster of the world's most famous library, also it holds on display the first collection of sunken antiquities worldwide.
 

Presentation of the department

The Islamic antiquities section comprises a variety of artifacts that show the exquisite craftsmanship of this period’s artists. The visitor may find, among other artifacts, textile, plastered stained glass, woodwork and pottery which would all offer him a glimpse of the social, intellectual, scientific and religious aspects of this period.

Islamic Era

The Islamic era starts in Egypt in 641 A.D. with the invasion of an army leader called Amr Ibn El 'As during the reign of Caliph Omar Ibn El Khattab. The conquests started at the time of the Prophet (PBUH) when Arab tribalism ended and after his death in 632 A.D. – 11 Hejira during the time of the Four Righteous Caliphs.

I. The Ummayyad Dynasty (661-750 A.D. / 20 – 132 Hejira)

The Ummayyads were the first ruling dynasty after the Caliphate and they ruled from 661 to 750 A.D. from Damascus.  They belonged to the bigger clans of Quraish.  Many converted to Islam well after the Muslim invasion, except Othman Ibn Affan, the third Caliph, who was one of the early ones to convert. The most famous lord of Beni Ummayya was Abu Sufian Ibn Harb, the overall master of Quraish from the time of the Badr invasion to the Arab conquest.  His son Mu'awaya (661-680 A.D.) is the founder of the Umayyad dynasty. He was a 'wali' (ruler) over Syria since 657 A.D. on behalf of the Caliph Omar Ibn El Khattab. 
Following the murder of Ali Ibn Abi Taleb and the succession of his son El Hassan Ibn Ali, the latter abdicated the caliphate to Mo'awaya Ibn Abi Sufian. Thus, the caliphate moved from the House of Ummayya to the Sufiani branch.  There were 32 'walis' (rulers) over Egypt from the time of the Arab conquest to the end of the Ummayyad dynasty.
The Ummayyad dynasty saw a flourishing of the economy in Egypt and a sense of safety prevailed among its people. They did not complain of heavy taxes being imposed on them nor about extortion nor about the ills of rule.  The inhabitants of Egypt went about their agriculture, increasing their yields and enhancing irrigation.  They built nilometres to measure the ebb and flow of the Nile. Furthermore, industry flourished during that dynasty, particularly textiles.

Factors contributing to the Fall of the Ummayyad Dynasty

Resistance grew against the Ummayyad regime from all corners, in spite of the success of the dynasty in its conquests and its policy of arabization. The dynasty was divided upon itself due to the succession system that was followed whereby more than one was considered for succession. This policy led to the division of Arabs into 'Quaiseya' in the north and 'Yemenia' in the south and to bitter civil wars between the two factions which weakened the regime considerably.

II. The Abbasid Dynasty (750 - 1258 A.D.)

The founder of the Abbasid dynasty is Al-Abbas ibn Abd Al-Muttalib, the uncle of the Prophet (PBUH), therefore his descendants claimed legitimacy to the caliphate based on their descent and being the rightful heirs of Muhammed (PBUH). 
'Abu Al-Abbas Al-Saffah' (749-754A.D.) managed with the help of the followers of Ali (Shi'a) to defeat the Ummayyad rulers and their adoption of a luxurious monarchical life. He and his brother Abu Ga'far Al-Mansur (745 – 775 A.D.) took strict measures to strengthen Abbasid rule. In 762 A.D., the city of Baghdad was built.
The number of rulers during the Abbasid period reached 69 between 750 A.D. (132 Hejira) until the arrival on stage of Ahmed Ibn Tulun in 868 A.D. (254 Hejira). 
Thanks to Abu Moslem Al-Khurasani, the Abbasid rule centred in the east, particularly in the region of Khurasan.  The Abbasids showed leniency in treating the Copts of Egypt and they promised to protect the property of the church and to reduce taxes imposed on the Copts.

Factors contributing to the Decline of the Abbasid Dynasty

The decline of the Abbasid rule and loss of control was mainly due to the increase in number and power of the Turks and Seljuks called the Mamelukes in the army. By allowing non-Arab forces into the army and into the administration and by giving them more and more power, the Abbasids gradually became only figureheads, who allowed the remote parts of the empire to become independent. Their system of succession also was a major contributing factor, as it allowed for more than one successor in a short period of time.  Furthermore, the competition between the followers of Ali and the Abbasids played a role in weakening the dynasty.

III. Tulunid Dynasty (868 – 905 A.D. / 254 – 292 Hejira)

The dynasty is named after its founder Ahmed Ibn Tulun who was of Turkic origin. When his father Tulun died, his mother remarried a certain prince called Bayakbak. By the year 252 Hejira, this prince was appointed governor of Egypt. He, instead, appointed his step-son to that position.
The Tulunid rule lasted 38 years in which Egypt enjoyed some safety, stability and prosperity.  It also saw an economic, scientific, literary and artistic revival, particularly during the reign of Tulun and his son Khumarawayh.  The city of 'Qatae' outside of Fustat was established then and they embarked on building lavish palaces. The army became independent of the caliphate in Baghdad and the rulers managed to spread economic stability as well as to maintain pricing and availability of commodities all over Egypt.
The dynasty went into decline during the time of Harun (896 – 904 A.D.), the son of Khumarawayh, whose conflicts with the Qarmatians had exhausted the country. Eventually, he was unable to defend Egypt against the invading forces of the Abbasids who took over in 905 A.D.

IV. The Ikshidid Dynasty (935-969 A.D. / 323-358 Hejira)

The Ikshidid or Benu Ikshid are of 'arabized' Turkish descent who governed Egypt for thirty four years during the fourth century Hejira.  They ruled from Fustat. They are descendants of Mohammad ibn Tughj the Ikshid (935-946 A.D.) . The title Ikshid means 'King of Kings', although it is also said that it is of Persian origin which means 'The Clever". The title was conferred on him by the Caliph.
Egypt experienced a revival during the short-lived Ikshidid dynasty in the arts, literature and sciences, in architecture and the production of many fine objets d'art. However, there is little that remains of that period, possibly due to the ravages of time or the destruction by the Fatimids of Ikshidid buildings and palaces.

Factors contributing to the Decline of the Ikshidid Dynasty

Following the death of Muhammad ibn Tughj, his military commander the 'Black Kafur' (946-968 A.D.) took over the rule, as Tughj's two sons were under age. In 966 A.D., he ruled Egypt on behalf of the Abbasids. When the Fatimids invaded Egypt, they obliterated the descendants of Beni Tughj and ousted the last Ikshidid prince Abul Fawares from Fustat in 969 A.D.

V. The Fatimid Dynasty (909-1171 A.D. / 358-567 Hejira)

There are two schools of thought regarding the origin of the Fatimids among historians.  The first claims they descend from 'Ali ibn Abi Taleb' and 'Fatima' the daughter of the Prophet (PBUH) and the other school doubts this lineage.
Egypt witnessed a flourishing of Islamic art and architecture under the Fatimids, Al Azhar University and Al Hakim mosque being their legacy to this day. The Fatimids also developed the army in order to pursue their ambitious plan of conquests and to defend themselves. Egypt's economy flourished and agricultural production increased, as they devoted efforts to build dams and to clear canals. The textile, mineral, pottery and glass industries saw a great revival during that era.

Factors contributing to the Decline of the Fatimid Dynasty

'Al-Adid Ledinullah' was the fourteenth and last ruler of the Fatimid dynasty. He was a minor at a time when Egypt had become weak and open to attacks by the Crusaders, while the Seljuks were also vying for that country.  Al-Adid's vizier 'Shawar' effectively ruled Egypt and he preferred to make a deal with the Crusaders to fight off the Seljuks. The crusaders killed everyone in Belbeis in 1168 and were on their way to Cairo.  This is when Shawar ordered the burning of Fustat to the ground and switched sides with the Seljuks in Damascus. He struck a deal with the Zengid sultan Nur ad-Din in Damascus to become the first minister of Egypt.  He fought the Crusaders with the help of Zengid army leaders Shirkuh and his nephew Salah El Din El Ayyubi (Saladin). The Sultan in Damascus appointed Shirkuh as vizier of Egypt, but he died and Saladin took over from him and overthrew Shawar in 1169.  In 1171 A.D. Al Adid died (of natural or perhaps unnatural causes). This is when Saladin took over the rule of Egypt to start the Ayyubid dynasty and he replaced Shia doctrine with the Sunni faith.
 

VI. The Ayyubid Dynasty (1171-1250 A.D. / 567-648 Hejira)

The Ayyubids are of Kurkish origin. They ruled Egypt, Syria and Iraq from 1171. to 1250/1260 A.D. Their seats were in Damascus and in Cairo. The founder of the dynasty is 'Negm Eldin Ayyub' who was an army leader under the Zengids in Syria.
The Ayyub family originally came from Armenia.  Ayyub' s political career shone when he took over the rule of Crete, then Damascus. His brother 'Assad Eldin Shirkuh, the army general of Nur ad-Din (of the Zengid dynasty in Syria) and his son Saladin (1138-1193 A.D.) conquered Egypt in 1169. Saladin wanted to become independent of Nur ad-Din and to take over the rule from the Fatimids. Two years later, he conquered Aleppo and ended the Zengid rule in Syria and managed to rule both Egypt and Syria from 1171 A.D. onwards.
The Ayyubid period in Egypt is considered to be an extension of the Tulunid and Ikhshidid eras, as far as the flowering of language and religion are concerned. The Ayyubids also paid attention to the building of libraries.  The efforts they exerted to build up the army made Egypt a military country that took upon itself the fight against the Crusaders with the view to liberate Egypt and Syria of their danger. They spent a large amount of their resources on the army and on building fortresses in strategic places. Whatever funds were left over, they used on internal reform.

Factors contributing to the Decline of the Ayyubid  Dynasty

Saladin left Egypt in 1182 to fight off the Crusaders in the Holy Land.  He left his brother Al-Adil in charge, together with his vizier, Al-Fadil and he never returned to Egypt. He died in Damascus in 1193 A.D. (589 Hejira), after having divided his kingdom between his sons and his brother Al-Adel.  However the in-fighting that ensued between them ended up weakening the state instead of fighting their enemy, the Crusaders. The Ayyubid dynasty ended with the death of Turanshah, the son of As-Saleh Ayyub, in 1250 A.D.

VII. The Mameluke Dynsaty (1250-1517 A.D./ 684-922 Hejira

The Mameluke dynasty starts with Izz El-Din Aybak, the first Mameluke sultan of Turkic descent, who had married Shajar El-Durr, the widow of As-Saleh Ayyub. The latter and his son Turanshah died in 1249 and 1250 A.D. respectively. Shajar El-Durr ruled Egypt for eighty days after her husband's death with the help of the Mamelukes, but found it difficult to continue ruling and was forced to marry Aybak and to abdicate the throne to him thereafter.
The Ayyubids' policy was to bring in mamelukes (word means 'owned') from non-Muslim countries, usually when they were children and bring them up according to strict rules and regulations in military camps isolated from the rest of the outside world. This ensured their total loyalty to the rulers, and because of that system, the Mameluke dynasty enjoyed a certain amount of relative stability.
The Mameluke dynasty ruled along the lines of the Ayyubids at the time of the seventh Crusade of Louis IX of France. The Mamelukes are divided into two sections, the first is known as the Bahari (meaning sea or river) based at Al-Roda Island in the Nile in Cairo. They ruled from 1250 to 1382 A.D./ 648-784 Hejira and were mainly Kipchaks.
The other dynasty is called the Burjjeya, as they were based at the citadel of Cairo and they were of Circassian origin. Their reign spanned from 1382 to1517 A.D. (784-922 Hejira).
The Mamelukes fought the Mongol invasion into Egypt and Syria and defeated them at the battle of Ain Jalut in Palestine under the command of Baybars in 1260. The Sultan in Egypt at the time was Qutuz who ten years earlier, together with Baibars and Qalawun, had fought against the Seventh Crusade of Louis IX King of France.  Baybars (1260-1277 A.D.), it is said, had Sultan Qutuz assassinated and became the new Sultan of Egypt.  He became popular as he lifted the war taxes which were imposed on people by Sultan Qutuz.
The Mamelukes continued to concentrate their efforts on fighting the Crusaders' strongholds in Syria and in 1290 A.D. they destroyed Acre (Acca), the last Crusaders' bastion in Syria.
There were despots among the Mameluke ruling class who were inclined to use brute force, however, there were also patrons of the arts in a way Egypt had not experienced since the time of the Ptolemies. The skyline in Cairo was filled with a variety of architectural masterpieces ranging from mosques, to schools, domes, commercial lanes, mausoleums, palaces, sabeels and baths. The 'mashrabeyya' work flourished alongside inlay work ('takfeet') of gold or silver onto copper, so did the making of furniture, gates and trunks.
The Mamelukes also took care to increase agricultural produce in the knowledge that it was their prime source of income. They also paid attention to animal husbandry and ensured that livestock improved their genes by bringing the best breeds.

VIII. The Ottoman Empire (1517-1924 A.D./923-1342 Hejira)

The Ottomans

The Ottoman lineage goes back to Osman Khan son of Ertuğrul who founded the empire. He belonged to the clan 'Qabi' one of the clans of the Oghuz tribes which was forced to migrate when Genghis Khan invaded Asia Minor in 1226A.D./ 624 Hejira.
Osman expanded his realm at the expense of the Byzantine empire and organized his Ottoman kingdom by 1300A.D./ 699 Hejira.
The Ottomans formed special units called 'Enkesharia' which helped them expand rapidly into the Balkans and Anatolia. They were however beaten by the forces of Mongol ruler 'Timor' at Ankara in 1402 A.D./804 Hejira.  The defeat was followed by upheavals and political unrests.  However, the Ottoman regime regained its strength and launched a conquest and expansion programme during the reign of Murad II (1421-1453 A.D./ 832-854 Hejira), then again under Mohamed the Conqueror (1451-1481A.D./ 854-885 Hejira). In 1453 A.D., the conquest of Constantinople put an end to the Byzantine presence in the region.

The Ottomans in Egypt

The Mameluke dynasty lasted over two and a half centuries in Egypt.  During their reign, they managed to win victory over the Mongols in Ain Jalut. However, their end came at the hands of the Ottoman Sultan 'Selim I' (1512-1520 A.D./ 920-926 Hejira) who conquered Syria in the battle of 'Marj Dabeq' north of Aleppo. The Mameluke Sultan Qonsuh 'El-Ghouri' fought valiantly and with great courage and nearly won the battle, however, the Ottomans used cannons and El Ghouri's generals on both flanks switched sides. The battle ended with the death of the Mameluke Sultan under the hooves of horses in 1516 A.D./922 Hejira.
The nephew of El Ghouri, 'Tuman Bay' took over the reign, and the battles fought in his time between the Mamelukes and the Ottomans were fierce. The decisive battle was near the valley called 'Birket El-Haj' in 1517 A.D./ 922 Hejira. While the Egyptians fought with courage, the Mameluke army was no match to the Ottoman cannons and gunpowder, which were not in their arsenal. When the Ottomans won, Tuman Bay fled to Cairo and increased the fortification of the citadel. However, his attempts were futile in the face of the Ottoman attack.
Ottoman Sultan Selim I entered Cairo in 1517 A.D./ 923 Hejira and had Tuman Bay hanged from gate Zuweila.  His death ended the Burjjeya Mameluke dynasty and ushered in the rule of the Ottomans in Egypt.
Turning Egypt into an Ottoman province and Cairo into a city taking orders from Istanbul had its effect on the artistic life of Egypt.  While the new rulers were busy amassing money, stagnation set in. Hordes of Egyptian artisans were sent to Istanbul, together with stripped marble and torn-out parts of palaces were shipped to the Ottoman capital.
The Ottomans were well known at the time for producing carpets and their effective use of marble which was liberally used in mosques, water centres (sabeel), on the floors and in creating objets d'art. They mastered the art of working on metal and engraving it with decorative calligraphy, particularly verses from the Koran.  Egyptian architecture under Ottoman rule was greatly influenced by decorating walls, domes and minarets with a veneer of glazed mosaics and tiles.
The Ottomans were not against the cultural or artistic life in Egypt or elsewhere, in fact art and architecture went on developing during their rule.
The Ottoman empire survived for six centuries and its Muslim armies conquered vast tracts of lands in south east and middle Europe. They fought the kings of Europe and drove them to Hungary, besieged Vienna, the capital of Austria and swept along the Mediterranean coast up to Asia, conquered Iraq, Syria and Egypt on the hands of Sultan Selim I and his son Suliman.

The Fall of the Ottoman Empire

Internal and external causes played a role in bringing down the Ottoman empire. There was the decline in military and fighting ability among the Janissary corps, due to their neglect of military training.  While the corps was initially considered to be their only family and indeed, they were not allowed to marry, in time, their lack of loyalty to the corps and their increasing political power rendered them a real threat to the sultans. They saw it fit to instigate coups against or kill the sultans whenever they felt threatened by them (e.g. Osman II was murdered by them in 1622, and in 1807 they deposed Sultan Selim III).
On the other hand, the sultans themselves grew weaker and their grip on the empire loosened when real power was in the hands of their viziers. 
The external factors leading to the demise of the Ottoman empire lay in the breakdown of centralized government and the challenge faced in defending it against foreign invasions. The Ottoman army was no match to the technically advanced military force of the Europeans, in spite of efforts to reorganize it. 
The Ottoman empire ended officially in 1924 A.D./ 1342 Hejira, when Mustafa Kamal Ataturk cancelled it and declared Turkey a republic within the borders it now occupies.
 

Presentation of the department

The Byzantine section comprises a unique collection of daily life used objects which clearly reveals the characteristics of the Coptic art. This art, which is a popular Christian art restricted to Egypt, is in principle a religious form of art that tends to be symbolic and simple. The characters depicted are either inspired by the Holy Bible or represent eminent local Saints. The Coptic art neglected the third dimension, and human figures were portrayed in only two dimensions. The use of geometric motifs, which have a symbolic  religious connotation, was quite popular. The triangle, for instance, connotes the Holy Trinity. Animal figures, such as fish and floral motifs as vine branches, were widespread.

Byzantine Period

The Byzantine era is closely related to Christianity.  Christianity reached Egypt during the first century A.D. when The Apostle Mark  the Evangelist came to Alexandria in 61 A.D to spread the Gospel.  In 68 A.D., Saint Mark decided to leave Alexandria and he therefore ordained Anianus (Hanania) the first Bishop of Alexandria.  Saint Mark is the founder and Bishop of the first church in Alexandria which is situated on the same spot ever since.  It is where the current Saint Mark Church (Morkosseya) is on the street called 'Kenisset El Aqbat' in downtown Alexandria. 

Up until the fourth century A.D., Christians were persecuted by the pagans, the worst persecution being at the hands of Emperor Diocletian (284-305A.D.).  In 303 A.D. Diocletian issued a general decree for the persecution of Christians, then three edicts to jail the Bishops and to torture them, as well as to kill Christians if they refused to renounce their faith. 

The Christians in Egypt suffered the most from persecution during that time, more so than anywhere else in the entire Roman empire.  Tertullian is claimed to have said that "if all the martyrs in the world were put on the plate of a scale, and the Egyptian martyrs on the other, the latter would be heavier".

The Coptic Calendar in fact starts at the time of Diocletian, the era of martyrs, its starting point being the year 284A.D.  The most famous martyr of that era is St. Mina The Miracle Worker (Mar Mina El Agaybi) who established a church in Mariout near Alexandria, now a famous Monastery by his Egyptian name.

Emperor Constantine Converts to Christianity

In the year 312 A.D., Emperor Constantine decides to embrace Christianity after an incident, that he himself is said to recount, according to Eusebius.  Constantine was engaged in battle with Emperor Maxentius which was fought on the Milvian bridge near Rome on the river Tiber.  It is said that Constantine saw a cross made of light in the sky on which was written, you win, this is the sign.  He then asked his soldiers to make the sign of the cross on their arms and to take it as their banner.  Constantine won the battle, as Maxentius fell into the river when the bridge collapsed and drowned.  Constantine entered Rome and the city greeted him and he became the sole ruler of the Western provinces of the Roman empire.

The Edict of Milan (313 A.D.)

Constantine decided after his victory over Maxentius to give full liberty to the Christians and to allow them to live according to their own laws.  He returned their properties and declared religious tolerance for all faiths.  This edict put an end to the torture and persecution which had afflicted Christians heretofore.

First Council of Nicea (325 A.D.)

When the controversy between Arius and Bishop Alexandros reached Emperor Constantine, regarding the nature or divinity of Jesus Christ, the Emperor called a meeting to spell out the Christian creed.  The Council of Nicea was attended by 318 bishops in the company of many priests, mostly from the eastern provinces.  Pope Silvester the First, Bishop of Rome, did not personally attend the council, but sent instead some of his priests to represent him.

The Nicean council came up with the creed or profession of faith that refuted the Arian theology.  It was drafted by Pope Athanasius of Alexandria.

Saint Pachomius Founder of Monasteries (323 A.D.)

Saint Pachomius was born in 290 A.D. and converted to Christianity while serving in the army.  He was 20 years old.  When he was released from the army, he chose the life of the ascetic which had been started by Saint Paul of Thebes and later by Saint Anthony.  However, it is Saint Pachomius who is credited with establishing the strict rules for communal monastic life, called Koinonia, which were translated into Greek and Latin and adopted in Europe by Benedict, the father of western monasticism.

Saint Pachomius initially lived his ascetic life in a deserted temple of Serapis, and the first monastery he established was near Dendera.

The End of Paganism (394 A.D.)

Emperor Theodosius forced the Roman Senate to abolish paganism in all its forms throughout the entire empire, east and west, and to enforce severe punishment to anyone embracing a religion other than Christianity or reverting from it or denouncing it.  He is therefore seen in history as the man who made Christianity the official religion of the State.

In 324 A.D., Emperor Constantine had managed to unify the empire under his aegis after defeating his co-regent Licinius and ruler of the east.  His victory was a welcome move for the Christians who had started to suffer again at the hands of Licinius who reneged on the Edict of Milan, and was punishing the Christians for supporting Constantine.

During the Byzantine era, many heresies appeared, the most famous being the Arian heresy.  Arius is believed to be of Lybian origin who studied at Antioch.  He became a Christian priest in Alexandria.  The heresy started in 318 A.D. which prompted Bishop Alexandros to convene a council of Egyptian clergy to strip Arius from his priestly role.

Council of Chalcedon (451 A.D.)

The Council of Chalcedon, near Constantinople, was convened by the emperor in order to settle organisational and theological matters pertaining to the Christian Church.  A great number of churchmen, around 632 including 370 bishops, attended this council.

This council represents a turning point in the history of the Church, particularly Byzantine Rome, as Egypt and the Levant refused to adhere to its decisions.  The Church in the latter countries stood by the Monophysite creed and split from the Old and New Rome (Constantinople).  Following that council, Egypt decided to stop using the Greek language in its liturgy and to revert back to the ancient Egyptian language, which from that time on was known as the Coptic language.  The Coptic language is the ancient Egyptian language written in Greek letters with the addition of seven letters taken from the Demotic script which had no equivalent sounds in the Greek alphabet.

Persian Invasion of Alexandria (501 A.D.)

The Persians invaded Syria then marched on to invade Egypt.  They were able to advance in the Delta, however, they were stopped at the gates of Alexandria which became difficult for them to capture.  It would appear that the Persian army leader worried about the fact that he was far away from his base and supplies and he therefore decided to retreat.

The long siege of Alexandria resulted in a severe famine and Emperor Anastasius (491 – 518 A.D.) endeavoured to revive the city and to restore its buildings.  The famous Alexandrian lighthouse had been neglected for centuries by then.  He therefore ordered its restoration and care. 

Invasion of Alexandria (642A.D. – 22 Hejira)

Soon after securing the Babylon Fort in Old Cairo, the Muslim armies proceeded towards Alexandria.  They were met by Roman garrisons on several spots, but these were defeated.  Alexandria, however, proved a difficult city to besiege, as it is built along the sea and the Muslim armies had no ships.  Its fortified walls were also hard to penetrate, which made it difficult to approach, let alone to capture the city.  Thousands of soldiers were stationed inside its walls and were using mangonels to hurl projectiles at the invading army. 

When Constantine III took over the rule of Egypt after the death of his father Heraclius, he recalled Cyrus (who had previously negotiated with the Arabs at Fort Babylon)from exile for advice regarding the situation in Egypt and how best to defend it, but he died soon after.  His brother Heraclonas took the throne, together with his nephew Constans II, son of Constantine III, as co-emperor.  They decided to send Cyrus back to Egypt as their envoy to negotiate another treaty with the Arabs.  Cyrus had no choice but to surrender Egypt to the Arabs and to sign a treaty.

The new treaty was negotiated between Cyrus and the Arabs in November 641A.D.  Unlike the Babylon treaty, the new treaty allowed the Byzantines to completely withdraw from Egypt, carrying their soldiers, their worldly goods and money and their subjects out of Egypt with the proviso that the Muslims would not attack their churches.  The departure was to take place within eleven months of signing the treaty.

On 29th September 642 A.D. the Romans left Alexandria as agreed, and the Muslims peacefully took over the city with great joy.  Meanwhile, Cyrus died after signing the treaty and before the complete withdrawal of the Romans.  The Byzantines reassembled a fleet to win back Alexandria and in fact won it back in 645, but the Muslims captured the city again in 646.

Presentation of the department

The Hellenistic period started when Alexander the Great entered Egypt in 332 BCE. After the death of Alexander in 323 BCE, Egypt was ruled by Ptolemy I, one of his army generals, then by Ptolemy’s descendants, for about 300 years. This period ended with the death of Cleopatra, the last Ptolemic queen, during 30 BCE. Cleopatra and Marcus Antonius were defeated by the Roman General Octavian who added Egypt to the Roman Empire. Egypt remained under the Roman rule until the Arab conquest in 641 CE.
The largest collection in the Bibliotheca Alexandrina Antiquities Museum dates back to the Greco-Roman period. It reflects the Greek and Roman religious concepts, and part of it represents some aspects of the daily life.

The Greek Period in Egypt

When Alexander the Great entered Egypt in 332 BCE he met with little resistance from the occupying Persian administration. Persians were hated by the native Egyptians for contemning the Egyptian religion and traditions, and also because of the violence that was exerted to assume control over them, Alexander was therefore welcomed by the Egyptians.

Alexander showed respect and esteem to the Egyptian gods. He visited the Oracle of Amon at the Siwa Oasis, renowned in the Greek world, and it disclosed the information that Alexander was the son of Amon.

It is certain that he initiated the foundation of the great city which was to bear his name on the site of the Rhakotis village. Alexander left in 331 BCE, Egypt was only part of the Empire which Alexander had conquered from the Persian king.

When Alexander died in 323, his Generals divided up the Empire. Perdicas, the holder of Alexander’s royal seal, failed to take Egypt, but Ptolemy, son of Lagos, did. Egypt was ruled by Ptolemy’s descendants for three centuries that ended by the suicide of Cleopatra VII in August 30 BCE.

The character of the Ptolemaic monarchy in Egypt set a style for other Hellenistic kingdoms. This style emerged from the Greco-Macedonian political awareness of the need to dominate Egypt and its resources and its people, and at the same time to turn the power of Egypt towards the context of a Mediterranean world to compose a large empire.   

The last century of Ptolemaic rule is usually depicted as a rather gloomy stalemate; a period of decline in which the kings were merely puppets of Rome.

The last and most famous of the Ptolemaic rulers, was Cleopatra VII, she intended to revive of the Ptolemaic Dynasty through the Roman Generals. The first victim of her charm was Julius Caesar, one of the greatest Roman leaders. After he left Egypt, Cleopatra was pregnant with a son whom she named Caesar then to be known as Ptolemy Caesarion.

Following Julius Caesar’s death, came Marcus Antonius, and let us not ignore Cleopatra’s ambitions to make Marcus Antonius help restore the great imperialist days of her ancestors. Marcus Antonius helped Cleopatra set a temporary stability which was ravaged by the Roman leader Octavian or Augustus, when they met at the naval battle at Actium, in western Greece, in September 31 BCE. It proved to be the swan-song of the once great Ptolemaic navy, and the once great Ptolemaic kingdom.

Antonius and Cleopatra fled to Alexandria, and ten months later Alexandria was conquered, and Cleopatra died on 12 August, her son Caesarion too. Then Rome was declared as an Empire and Egypt as a Roman state.
 

Rome

Early references which are depended on in the study of Roman history indicate that the Roman army came to Italy as part of a migration from the city of Troy.  The leader of that migration was 'Aeneas', one of the heroes of Troy.

The story goes that two of Aeneas's grandchildren from the union between his son and the goddess Aphrodite (Greek goddess of beauty) were Romulus and Remus.  They were by the river when the current grabbed them.  They hung on to some fig tree branches that were floating on the water and were saved by a suckling she-wolf who suckled them with her own litter.  They were eventually found by a shepherd who brought them up until they grew strong.  He took them afterwards to the temple god.

The priests at the temple prophesied that one of these boys would become the founder of a city which would become eternal near the mouth of the river Tiber.  The two brothers fought each other and Romulus killed his brother Remus and founded the city of Rome around 753 B.C.

The Roman Era in Egypt

While Hellenistic kingdoms fell one after the other into the hands of the Romans, Egypt managed to remain independent of Rome until 30B.C., after the naval Battle of Actium, when Octavius annexed Egypt after the death of Antony and Cleopatra, thus ending the Ptolemaic Dynasty which lasted three centuries in Egypt.

30 B.C. is considered the end of the Republican era and the beginning of the Imperial era in Rome, when the title of Princeps replaced that of Consul.  This title was given to Emperor Augustus in 23 B.C.

Emperor Augustus (the great-nephew of Julius Caesar) was the first Roman Emperor.  He minted a commemorative coin on the annexation of Egypt which carried the image of a crocodile, the most famous Nilotic creature.  He wrote the words 'Aegypto Capta, meaning the capturing of Egypt, as its capture had always been an economic ambition of Rome.  Rome imposed heavy financial taxes on Egypt and taxes in the form of shipping Egyptian agricultural produce gratis.

Egypt was famous then for its production of papyrus and glass which were also shipped to the entire Roman empire, along with stones and minerals, such as porphyry and granite to be used in Rome in sculpture and in architecture.

The Romans continued their policy of building temples and new cities and Egypt during the Roman era was more open to the rest of the world than heretofore.  Greek was still the official language alongside Latin.

Many emperors reigned from 30B.C. to 396 A.D.  By 300-400 A.D. most Egyptians embraced Christianity.

The Ancient Egyptians believed in a further and eternal life following death. This was, without any doubt, because of their observation for some natural phenomena. The Nile and the sun cycles, and the myth of Osiris inspired them with the idea of the resurrection. Accordingly, the Egyptians were keen on the preservation of the bodies of their deceased, and on the preparation of their tombs which they equipped with the funerary furniture the deceased would need for this journey. These beliefs continued to exist during the Hellenistic and Roman Periods.
The Artifacts displayed “In the Afterlife” hall offer glimpses of the funerary beliefs in the Ancient Egyptian, Hellenistic and Roman eras. 

The Eternal Life

The Ancient Egyptians believed in a further and eternal life following death. This was without any doubt because of their observation for some natural phenomena. The Nile and the Sun cycles, and the myth of Osiris inspired them with the idea of the resurrection. According to them, the Sun sets (dies) in the western horizon to rise (reborn) the next morning. The Nile flood occurs in the same time every year to inundate the dead (dry) land and make it alive suitable for cultivation. Following the harvest season, it dies (dries) once more until the next year. It is also believed that dreams had played a certain part in their beliefs. When people saw their deceased relatives in the their dreams, they must have thought that these deceased persons were still alive somewhere in the beyond.

The Mummification process

It is well known that the graves of the Predynastic and the Early Dynastic periods, were shallow oval pits in which the deceased bodies used to be buried in a crouched or foetal position, the heads pointed south with the face towards the setting sun. When these bodies were unprotected from the surrounding sand, a process of swift natural desiccation took place, the decomposition fluids were leached into the sand, and the skin, hair, tendons and ligaments rapidly dried; internally, connective tissue and the larger organs were preserved. This natural mummification, which was observed by Egyptians, was elaborated with the development of the civilization. 
It seems that early in the First Dynasty, the Egyptians sought to achieve, by artificial means, some semblance of preservation of the body which had previously been possible in the sand graves. According to the evidences that were gathered from the Old Kingdom tombs, we may say that the embalming technique in that period was merely to wrap the body with many layers of linen bandages which were impregnated with resin. This method of wrapping the body continued to be used, with some modification, until the New Kingdom, when the mummification process had reached its final stage of perfection.

Mummification in the New Kingdom

Shortly after death, the corpse was brought to the Waabt or the workshop where it was laid on the embalming stone table. Then the ethmoid bone was broken and decomposed, softened brain was teased through the nostril by using a metal hook. In fact, we do not know why such trouble was taken to extract the brain if there was no attempt to preserve it. We know, however, that the cranial cavity was afterwards filled with a thick layer of the bitumen; perhaps to inhibit the micro-organisms to pass through the bones of the skull. The cavity was afterwards stuffed with resin or linen soaked in resin.
The viscera were removed through an incision made on the left side of the lower abdomen. The internal organs were washed and soaked separately in natron, then treated with hot resin, bandaged, and packed in four canopic jars. The lids of these jars were shaped as the four sons of Horus: Imsty who was human-headed, to guard the liver; Hapy, ape-headed, guarded the lungs; Dua mwt.f, jackal-headed, guarded the stomach; and  Qebeh senw.ef, falcon-headed, protected the intestines.
The body and the emptied chest cavity were washed with palm wine and spices. (Palm wine, as manufactured in Ancient Egypt, usually contained about 14% ethyl alcohol.)
During 40 days, the corpse was buried in heaps of dry natron, renewed several times. As the natron usually acted as a  dehydrating agent and assisted in the breakdown of fatty tissues, the thoracic and abdominal cavities were packed three consecutive times with temporary stuffing materials enclosed in a piece of linen containing dry natron to accelerate the dehydration of the body tissues from inside. This was the main operation of the mummification process that depends scientifically on the extraction of the moisture out of the body by the osmosis pressure.
The corpse was then taken out of the natron, and the temporary stuffing materials removed from the thoracic and abdominal cavities because they would have become saturated and would have caused the putrefaction of the corpse if left within it.
The corpse was most probably brought to the Pr-nfr where it was washed and purified with the Nile water. This operation would have been the most important rite within the ritual which accompanied and controlled the timing of the physical preparation. The Nile water used was imbued with magic significance, within the cycle of myths connected with the rising (the rebirth) of sun from the river and the subsidence of the inundation. This might remind us with Heliopolitan image of the sun emerging, freshly bathed in the waters of the Nile. It recalls also the apparent spontaneous generation of life as the land emerged yearly on the water of the flood.
The body was anointed with cedar oil and other precious ointments and then rubbed with myrrh, cinnamon and other fragrant substances to return some of the original elasticity to the skin.
The body was smeared with molten resin to protect it from any further damage caused by insects, bacteria, or other external factors.
The mummy was wrapped with linen bandages, between which a rolled funerary papyrus was sometimes inserted, and adorned with jewels and amulets placed within the bandages and on the shrouds. Finally, garlands of flowers and green leaves were placed over the shroud before the body was laid in its coffin.
Before the burial, a priest performed on the mummy the rite of Opening the Mouth, to restore to the deceased person all his facilities, in order that he might see with his eyes, hear with his ears, speak with his mouth, breathe with his nose, and move his arms and legs. At the same time, the priest recited prayers while the family wailed for their beloved.

Mummification During the Hellenistic and Roman Periods

Mummification practices suffered their ultimate decline during the end of the Ancient Egyptian period until modern times. They came to an end during the Byzantine era. AlthoughGreco-Roman mummies are less well cured than those of preceding eras, they are far more splendidly wrapped, often in bandages that formed lozenge patterns, in which each lozenge was centered over a gold spot, with a portrait-mask painted on a wooden panel covering the face.
During the Ptolemaic Period both traditional evisceration methods (through the left flank and the anus) were used. A typical feature of late Ptolemaic and early Roman mummification is the heavy use of liquid resin both inside the body cavity as well as on the surface.
Many mummies of the third and fourth centuries CE show that the bodies were neither eviscerated nor de-brained; instead, they were thickly covered with resin.
An important innovation of the early Roman Period was gilding the mummy. Fingers, toes, eye-lids, lips, hands, feet, genitals, and on occasion the entire body, were covered with a fine layer of gold.
In the Greco-Roman period some embalmers, especially in Nubia, continued to attempt to care for their creations: If a mummy’s head got disconnected from its torso, it was reconnected using a stick; similarly a child’s body had a stick passed through its entire length to strengthen it. Some Roman mummies from Giza had reeds placed between layers of wrapping to keep the mummy stiff. This provided mummies with additional protection if they were buried without a coffin, as was the case with many during these periods.

Presentation of the department

The Ancient Egyptian historical period started with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt in c.3100 BCE. This period lasted for about 3000 years during which flourished the various aspects of art and science. In this respect, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina Antiquities Museum is displaying artifacts focusing on the intellectual side of this civilization, as well as on the artistic side the Egyptians excelled in.

Historical Preview

Ancient Egyptian Civilization remains a witness to the genius and advancement of the ancient Egyptian in various fields. Examples include grand historical constructions the facades of which recorded his achievements, philosophy and daily life, both pictorially and in writing. The drive behind this was a firm belief in the cult of resurrection and immortality after death.

Pharaonic history is divided into two phases: the pre-dynastic phase and the dynasty phase, which constitutes thirty dynasties.

The pre-dynastic age

This age is in turn divisible into two parts. The first extends from the 21^st millenium BCE to the 17^th millenium BCE It includes the Paleolithic, the Epipaleolithic and the Neolithic ages. These three ages are rather similar in their characteristics. Caves exhibit primitive engravings which confirm the beginnings of human settlement since these caves were chosen as an abode. The walls of the caves also show engravings which depict scenes of fishing and hunting of animals such as gazelles, ant-eaters, and other animals that lived in the same environment, such as elephants, ostriches, and giraffes. Most probably man was by then introduced to his first breakthrough into civilization: the discovery of fire which tamed his nature and moved him from primitivism into urbanity.

The second part of this age begins with the 17^th millenium BCE and lasts until around the year 3100 BCE It is the period directly preceding the pre-dynastic age. The ancient Egyptian had at the time his second leap in civilization, and that was his knowledge of agriculture and animal breeding, where he attempted to tame the environment to serve his benefit; he toiled the lands of the Nile-valley, domesticated animals and sought to subdue nature to his interests. He manufactured pottery and stored goods such as grains in various places. New settlements appeared in Al-Umra in Lower Egypt, in the Gerzean phase, in El-Badary in Upper Egypt and in Fayoum. The Egyptian at that time also discovered the use of mud-bricks for the first time in history.

The period which extends from 4000 BCE to 3500 BCE is known as the Nagada I and covered almost all of Upper Egypt.

The final age of the pre-dynastic era is Nagada II, also known as the Gerzean phase, extends between 3500 and 3100 BCE During this period villages were populated to become towns. The population density increased and the Egyptian expanded in the production of pottery and the use of stones.

The Unification (ca. 3100 BCE)

King Narmer unified Egypt, joining Hieracompolis and Nagada. He recorded his name inside a “serekh” or a rectangular frame which was similar to the royal palace façade, with Horus perched on the top. He also recorded this triumph on his famous plate known as the Narmer Palette. From hence the dynasties followed in succession. According to Manethon, the famous Greek historian, these dynasties are divisible into thirty dynasties, beginning in 3100 BCE until 332 BCE, i.e. the beginning of the Hellenistic Age in Egypt at the hands of Alexander the Great.

The Old Kingdom

After the unification, the Old Kingdom begins. It included the first to the seventh dynasties, the rulers of which were buried in various places, such as Abydos and Sakkara. At that time also appeared the construction of the pyramids which reached its most complete form in the pyramid of the Step Pyramid of Sakkara during the third dynasty. This pyramid and its funereal complex were designed by the ingenious architect Imhotep, who was also Djoser’s Vizier at the time. The supreme god at the time was the god Re.

Construction boomed during the age of the pyramid-builders – i.e. the fourth dynasty – when unique pyramids were built. These are the pyramids of Cheops, Chephren and Mycerinus. The Giza plateau was chosen for their construction, fetching the stones for the pyramids from the quarries of Abu Simbel.

The construction of pyramids lasted until the eighth dynasty, but they were of less significance than those built in Giza at Sakkara, Abu Seir and Abu Ghorab, since Thebes (Waset at the time) was more of a small village in the fourth region of Upper Egypt.

According to Manethon the Old Kingdom comes to an end with the seventh dynasty due to the weakness of the rulers in Memphis. Kings from Heracleopolis—the Ehnasya district in Middle Egypt—ruled Egypt at that time, a situation which lasted for a whole century.

The ninth and tenth dynasties followed, sustaining the status quo, until the advent of the eleventh dynasty. The kings of Egypt ruled from Thebes. This period became the first transitional age, i.e. the First Intermediate Period (2160-2040 BCE).

The Middle Kingdom

The Middle Kingdom begins towards the end of eleventh dynasty and lasts until the thirteenth dynasty (2040-1750  BCE). With the advent of the Middle Kingdom the age of division comes to an end at the hands of Mentuhotep I. He united the country and had his tomb constructed in el-Deir el-Bahari. He reinstated a centralized system of rule after fighting the rulers of Heracleopolis until he achieved this unification.

The twelfth dynasty followed; founded by Amenemhat I who was probably a vizier under the reign of Mentuhotep IV, the last king of the eleventh dynasty. Amenemhat I built himself a new capital south of Memphis, called Itjtawy (now known as Lisht). The kings of this dynasty moved their pyramid-shaped tombs to Lisht, Fayoum, and Hawara. Their pyramids, however, were smaller than those of their predecessors, especially in terms of the size and type of stones used.Much has come to our knowledge about rulers of that time who controlled the districts spreading in Beni Hasan, Bersha, Meir and Qau in Middle Egypt, and Aswan in Upper Egypt.

The twelfth dynasty ends with Amenemhat IV. Queen Sobeknefru (sometimes written "Nefrusobek")succeeded him to the throne. The prominent feature of the kings of this dynasty was the brevity of their terms of rule, which did not allow them the time to construct valuable monuments. No indications were even found of any important military expeditions they undertook.

In the second intermediate period, after the fall of the twelfth dynasty, a group of tribes known in ancient Egyptian texts as the "Hyksos" (derived from "Heka-khasut", which means "the shepherd kings") invaded Egyptian borders and in 1650  BCE founded themselves a capital (Avaris) east of the Delta.

At that time Thebes became the capital of Upper Egypt, and the rulers of the south surrendered to the Hyksos’ occupation of the north of the country. However, soon afterwards war broke out under the leadership of King Seqenenre. Fighting continued under the leadership of Kamose whose armies managed to break through as far as Avaris, the stronghold of the Hyksos. Then Ahmosis I, son of Seqenenre came to expel the Hyksos from Egypt.

The New Kingdom

The New Kingdom begins with the eighteenth dynasty and lasts until the twentieth dynasty (1550-1086 BCE).

In the wake of the grand victory achieved by Ahmosis I, Egypt saw a new age of unification. Ahmosis I also founded a royal centre of worship in Abydos. He also expanded the Karnak complex and renovated the temple of Mentuhotep I in el-Deir el-Bahari.

Ahmosis I was followed by such rulers as Tuthmosis I and Horemheb who undertook various expansionist wars in order to eliminate any threat or external danger that may threaten the security of the country.

Tuthmosis I built the first royal tomb in the Valley of Kings, to be followed by Tuthmosis II who married Hatshepsut, the queen who assumed power after the former’s death, although Tuthmosis III had ascended the throne officially. She took advantage of Tuthmosis III’s young age and built one of Egypt’s architecturally most glamorous temples.

Thutmosis III was followed by Amhotep III, then Amhotep IV, also known as Ekhnaton, who effected an unprecedented religious revolution in Pharaonic times. He was the founder of a monotheistic creed and moved the religious capital of the country to Akhenaton, which later came to be known as Tel El-Amarna.

After Akhnaton’s death, his son Tut Ankh Amun ascended the throne and restored order. He re-established and renovated the temples of the god Amun seeking to appease the god. He renovated all the statues and the inscriptions that had been demolished by Ekhnaton’s workers. Tut Ankh Amun died and was buried in his tomb in the Valley of Kings, to be followed by King Hur-Moheb, who was considered a first-rate military leader, leading armies into neighboring states to quell disturbances and confirm Egypt’s sovereignty.

Hur-Moheb was followed by Ramses I, founder of the nineteenth dynasty, to be followed after his death by his son Seti I, who by coming to power founded the nineteenth dynasty.

During the reign of Seti I and his son Ramses II many expeditions were launched against foreign countries, most important of which are the expeditions against the Hittites, most significantly the battle of Qadesh. Ramses II did not achieve any glorious victories in this battle, but the two parties reached the first peace-treaty in history.

Ramses II left many monuments behind, and he built himself a residence called Per-Ramesse, i.e. the House of Ramses in the Eastern Delta near Avaris, the capital of the Hyksos. Ramses II was followed by numerous rulers who adopted his self-same expansionist military and political course.

The New Kingdom came to an end with the death of Ramses XI who died before the completion of his tomb. North and south were divided, and Egypt began a Third Intermediate Period.

The Third Intermediary Age from the twenty-first dynasty to the twenty-fifth (1086-661 BCE)

The first ruler of this period was Smendis, ruling from Tanis north of Pi-Ramesse. In the south King Pi-Ankh was in power. At that time titles were granted to kings according to their service to Amun in order to add a religious touch to their kings and their capitals.

The north and the south were joined through intermarriage in an attempt to unify the country and affirming their connection to the Temple of Amun. It is said that the kings of the twenty second dynasty were Libyans and attempted to fix the royal affairs in Thebes. They led Egyptian armies on expeditions. Although Egypt consisted at that time of small states, cities such as Tanis, Thebes, Heracleopolis and Sa-ElHagar remained centers of great significance.

Division continued to weaken internal affairs and also the external politics during the twenty-third dynasty to the twenty-fifth. In 671  BCE the Assyrians ruled the country and invaded Memphis. They left the country to return in 667  BCE to occupy Lower Egypt and resume their raids on Egypt, until they reached Thebes.

The Late Period

The Late Period begins with the twenty-sixth dynasty and lasts until the thirtieth (661-332  BCE), during which time Thebes remained the centre of rule under the reign of the Kings of Nabata.

During the Saite reign relations with the Greeks started, where stations for commercial caravans were established between the two countries. In Egypt there was one such station in Penocrates in the Delta, where customs were charged for Mediterranean trade. The rulers of the Late Age were centered in Lower Egypt. During that time also the Demotic writing system became the official system of Egypt and the Book of the Dead acquired a completed form.

During the reign of the twenty-seventh dynasty the Persians invaded Egypt and Babel. King Besmatik III was defeated by Qambeez in 525 BCE imposing their language as the official tongue of the country as well as the Aramaic writing system.

Then Darius I came, reinstating peace and order in the country. He built an Egyptian temple for Amun in Al-Kharga Oasis. However, his army was defeated in 490 BCE which triggered disturbances and internal sects. His successor Kazaks soon succeeded in smothering these uprisings in 486 BCE.

In the Delta there was a Greek ruler called Inarus who was in firm control of the whole Delta. He was however defeated and expelled in 454 BCE.

When Darius II died in 405 BCE an age of prosperity and stability began in Egypt under the rule of a Greek ruler. On Manethon’s list this ruler belongs to the twenty-eighth dynasty and succeeded in unifying Egypt for 60 years. The kings of the thirtieth dynasty left behind monuments which stand witness for a period of prosperity and civilization. The last ruler of this dynasty was Nakhthorheb whose reign ended with the Persian invasion of Egypt in 343 BCE. The Persian rule of Egypt lasted for ten years, which were followed by the advent of Alexander the Great, a new conqueror of Egypt in 332 BCE, with whom a new age began. During this age Egypt became a part of the vast Greek Empire.